Attire

What do I wear?

First and foremost, what we wear is considered clothing – NOT costumes.  In order to save you money and provide an even greater level of authenticity, your clothing, and some of your equipment, can be made by yourself, as long as it is made authentically using authentic materials and methods.  Patterns are available.  No synthetic materials can be used in clothing, ONLY natural fibers, such as wool or flax linen.  This is a historical, as well as a safety, factor.  Synthetics melt instead of burning and, given our propensity for getting close to fire, we would hate to see your clothes melt to your skin.  If you desire to make your own clothing, some of our members can guide you to proper sources.  Since we are a small unit we do not have a large repository of cooking equipment, tents, weapons, clothing or accoutrements for loan or issue.  Please consult us before acquiring or making your own clothing, since we would hate to see you spend all that time and money to fashion a piece of clothing, only to find out it is less than authentic (trust us, it happens all the time). If you have more money than time, patience or desire to make your clothing and gear, we recommend several of the vendors listed on our Links page to help get you properly outfitted. Because we are an living history group, authenticity is a high priority in our attire and equipment . We humbly thank Legion XX's Matthew Amt for a large portion of the information contributed to this section, and our good friend, Lucrezia, for her assistance with the some of the more detailed information regarding clothing for women.

The subject of authenticity is brought up quite often.  We try to portray as close to historically accurate as possible--the camp life, drill and combat of the first century, given the obvious restrictions and limitations of the 21st Century.  If the public can see it, we try to make it look authentic. Generally, our historical impression will be maintained and enforced DURING HOURS OF PUBLIC INSPECTION.  When public hours have ended, you are free to bring on site whatever bedding, food, or other gear (historical or modern) you might want (vehicles may or may not be allowed by the site), and you may dress, eat, and sleep however you like.  Please bear in mind that you are still "participating" with the Legion, and refrain from any activities which might be unsafe and/or damaging to the group's reputation.

Thirty minutes before the site opens again to the public, all inappropriate miscellany must be out of the demonstration area.

It is expected that these guidelines and limits will cause some questions.  If in doubt, ask about a situation or piece of equipment before an event.

Certain modern conveniences we often take for granted need to be addressed, such as watches, eye glasses, rings on fingers, earrings, water bottles, etc.  If they are not period, don't wear them.  Obviously, if you need eye glasses to see, safety will override appearance, but remember, your face is the first thing at which anyone looks.  So if you are unable to wear contacts, we ask that you try to at least take off your classes during basic meetings with the public at events as much as possible, and for any photos. Our vendors provide an excellent source for period goods, canteens, jewelry, and more.  Members are encouraged to wear their hair, including facial hair, in a style appropriate to the persons whom they are portraying.  Appropriate headgear may disguise some inappropriate hair styles.

Roman Legion Soldier Attire
Tiro (recruit/1st year member)
Mile (line legionary soldier following the first year)
Advanced (second year and beyond)

Civilians
Men
Women
Children

Tiro (Recruit) - 1st Year member
In the beginning, focus on your basic kit. 

This includes:
Tunica
Caligae (sandals)
Balteaus (soldier's belt)
Focale (scarf)

Pick out a Roman name. This site will help: http://www.legionxxiv.org/nomens/
Red wool in a madder dye is our standard fabric for tunics, and highest ideal. This is a darker red (rather than a British Redcoat red.) If you start here, you won't ever have to go back and change or upgrade. In the past, the legion has allowed some leeway in color and fabric; however, we have since found a few good sources for madder dyed 100% wool, so the issue of "can't find it" should be solved. Alternately, tunics can be purchased from a recommended supplier. At each step, as you learn more, you should attempt to become more and more accurate in your kit. Tunics are fairly easy to make. You can find instructions for making your own on our tunics page.

Tunic length should be above the knee to mid-thigh when you are wearing your belt. When unbelted, the tunic should cover from elbow to elbow. This means that you'll probably want something on underneath as well. PLEASE do not wear modern shorts - they always stick out the bottom edge of the tunic, no matter how hard you try to hike them up. It looks sloppy and it EASILY corrected. Sometimes, a sash-like band of material was wound around the waist and worn under the belt and cingulum when the armor is not worn. If worn, this band should be approximately five inches wide and at least three feet long, and should definitely be visible under the belt.

Solutions: Cut off sweatpant shorts (1" from crotch), Roman underwear (look at one of several dealers). Purists will say that the last option is the only way to be "100% Accurate", and they are correct. At the same time, there are other no-cost or low-cost solutions ( I know you have some old sweatpants in a drawer somewhere) that are unseen to the public eye, and we for one, will not be checking what's on underneath your tunic.  Just leave your modern shorts at home! (see the men's section for more information on this topic.)

Caligae: You can purchase these from one of our recommended dealers, or make your own.  Several members can help with this. Although Trajan's Column continues to show soldiers wearing the famous sandal-like marching boots known as caligae in the early second century A.D., archaeological evidence seems to indicate the Roman Army began adopting an enclosed-pattern marching boot around A.D. 100, and perhaps even earlier in Britain, where the cold, marshy conditions were brutal on soldiers' feet. Of the hundreds of shoes (many fragmentary) uncovered a Vindolanda, England, not one is of the caliga pattern. It is probable that Roman logistical system worked with local cobblers and tailors in the resupply of units posted far from Rome. Legion XX's site provides patterns and directions for the more industrious soul.

Balteaus:  In the mid-first century A.D., a single belt to support the dagger was most common, but the two crossed belts worn in Augustan times still appeared.  It is clear that the Balteaus was a valuable personal possession.  Although made in army workshops and probably a required item of equipment, it was perhaps not issued at random but more carefully chosen by the soldier according to his own tastes, and budget. Remember that when you get your armor, the belt must fit around it, so add 5-6" to the length.  Best to consult with your belt-maker...or borrow someone's armor that fits when you are measuring for this. The Roman military belt (Balteaus), with its studded hanging apron (cingulum), was the proud mark of a soldier in or out of uniform, and many legionaries spent lavishly on embellishing their belts. The purpose of the apron is something of a mystery: While often described as a "groin guard," it certainly provides no real protection for this area and studded straps swinging between one's legs could even be considered something of an added danger. Probably the jingling sound produced by the dangling pendants became another mark of a soldier, a la the jingling spurs of a gunslinger in the Old West. Another function of the belt is to hold the soldier's tertiary weapon (after pilum and gladius), the dagger (pugio). This was usually suspended from a pair of "frogs," or large, hinged studs, on the soldier's left side.

The most common belt plates of the late first century show a simple pattern of concentric circles, or a domed boss surrounded by one or more raised circles. Belt plates are invariably made of brass or bronze; however, many if not most of these seemed to have been tinned to give them a silvery appearance. The legionary’s belt began to take on a different look after AD 130. Open-work belt plates began appearing, and by A.D. 160, the width gradually diminished back down to just over an inch (from its first century high of about two inches). Matt Amt's suggestions for making a Balteaus can be found HERE. Remember, the cingulum shown on these examples are the first century variety! For second century aprons, see below. The legionary’s studded apron originally extended nearly to the hem of his tunic. However, it became much shorter after A.D. 100. In some cases, it seems barely longer than three times the width of the belt!  This is most evident on Trajan’s Column. It does appear in several instances that the cingulum may have been “wrapped” around the belt itself, producing an extremely short appearance; perhaps this was a battlefield expedient. Directions for making your own can be found on Legion XX's site, and some excellent sources for parts can be found in the resources section of our Links page.

Focale (Scarf): The scarf came into use when the lorica segmentata was introduced in the last years of the first century B.C. It helped protect the soldier's neck and upper shoulder area from being chafed by the armor plates and, as we have learned from reenactment, by the baldric strap supporting the sword (which can easily bite into your neck if you're not wearing a scarf!). The neck scarf can be rectangular or triangular in shape, and in any [fairly dull] color. Legionaries wear it tucked into the armor; auxiliaries wear theirs knotted and outside their (ring mail) armor.

With this kit, you will look great, and won't be ashamed to appear at any public event. While you are gathering the rest of your gear, we may be able to loan you items. But you will be ready to go with these basic items.

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Miles (line legionary) - Following the First Year
NOW, the fun part...

• The full kit should include the basic kit, plus:
      Helmet
      Armor
      Scutum
      Weapons (pilum, gladius, pugio) (spear, sword, dagger)
  Marching Gear
  Eating Utensils
  Personal Items

In the past, we have followed the guidelines of Legio XX listed on their web site: www.larp.com/legioxx
You can see their site for suggested vendors and things to avoid, as well as our links page. Our target time period is early Imperial Rome - the First Century A.D. - so don't get something that is too far out (4th C, for instance).

Helmet: There was a wide variety of helmets in use in the mid-first century AD, nowadays known by H. Russell Robinson's classifications (see his Armour of Imperial Rome for the fullest details).  The choice of style is up to you, and does NOT depend on whether you plan to wear lorica segmentata or mail armor (hamata). 

The quality of your helmet must be very good.  Roman helmets were forged in one piece complete with the neck guards:  reproductions my have welds if they are not visible on the outside.  All the appropriate ridges and fittings must be present.  Generally, steel is used instead of iron, and either red or yellow brass is fine (the zinc content of Roman brass or orichalcum varied).  Rivets are generally copper, and may be domed or flat-headed.

Of the Imperial-Gallic helmets, type G is the most popular with reenactors, but types A through I are all acceptable.  Type I is brass, type A can be iron or brass, while the rest apparently were all iron.  All have embossed steps and ridges on the back of the skull, neck guard, and cheek pieces, and the distinctive "eyebrows" on the front.  The brow reinforce is a thick iron strip, or brass on brass helmets--this may have a tab in the center which projects through a slot in the bowl to prevent movement (though it should not poke you in the forehead!).

All Imperial-Gallic helmets except type A have applied brass features: edging; stamped decorative bosses;  "reeded" brow bands; crest support holders and hooks or rings; chin strap rings (1 under the neck guard, 1 inside each cheek piece); and sometimes carrying handles.  Types E-I have ear guards of brass, while type D's are iron, and A & C have none at all.  Applied brasswork is often tinned or silvered.  Most of these fittings are riveted on with copper rivets, though an iron brow reinforce may be secured with iron rivets at either end. For additional tips on purchasing or modifying your helmet, we recommend Legion XX's page on the subject.

Scutum: The common shape in the mid-first century seems to have been rectangular, but the curve-sided "Au gustan" style (right) is still seen on Trajan's Column.  The height ranges from 37" to 42", about from the shoulders to the top of the knee, and the width is 24" to 33".  The corners are typically rounded, but square corners are easier for a leather rim or a rimless shield.  There are a couple of scutum presses in the legion, we are happy to help you with this project.  We can supply you with the pressed, curved blank for a very reasonable fee, as well as the pattern for the painted emblem. Shield design should follow the official pattern of thunderbolts, wings, and plaques.  We find this on the gravestone of the eagle-bearer of the XIIIIth in Mainz.  Fortunately, for those wishing to purchase a shield, the ones made by Deepeeka have this pattern.  (But check with someone in the legion first, just to make sure.)The scutum was originally constructed of three layers of thin strips of wood (such as birch or oak), glued together at right angles to each other to form a curved piece of plywood 1/4" to 3/8" thick.  While this method is certainly the most authentic option, we usually use two layers of 1/8" luan plywood glued together in a curve.  Bendable birch plywood is very easy to work with though more expensive, and even plywood wall paneling has been used (but sand off the glossy finish before gluing!).  The local Home Depot or lumber store may have "door skins" which are 30"x80" sheets of 1/8" luan plywood--perfect for one scutum. Ordinary carpenter's glue works fine.  Liquid hide glue may be a little more authentic, and should work as well. Legion XX's scutum page has an excellent detailed description of how to make your own, but be sure to contact us before you start in order to help with authenticity concerns.

Armor: "Lorica" is Latin for "armor"; "segmentata" is a modern term applied to the classic Roman iron cuirass of bands or hoops, introduced by the late first century B.C.  Its origins are unknown.  Recent finds at the Teutoberg Forest and other sites make it clear that the Corbridge lorica which we and most other Roman groups use was not the first type of segmented armor used by the Romans.  It is, however, the only style which we can reproduce with complete accuracy.  It's interesting to note that most Roman armor probably did not shine. They used a lot of chain mail (a sort of cloth made of circular links), which doesn't shine. They also made scale armor (metal plates about 3 inches long and about an inch wide, sewn together on a linen/leather backing.) Scale armor shines a little, but not much. They also made leather armor, with the metal on the inside, or at least under the leather, probably again on a backing of linen, to make three layers. So, although the ancient Romans loved the ornate and glittery, their armor most probably did not shine! Most pre-purchased armor is bright and shiny and may need to be treated to dull the shine. Mike Bishop has a web site on the lorica segmentata at www.loricasegmentata.org. For full sized patterns and tips, check out Legion XX's lorica segmata page.

Lorica Hamata: Mail was the "standard" armor before the introduction of the lorica segmentata, and it continued in use among auxiliaries and legionaries throughout the imperial period.  It is not known what the ratio of hamata to segmentata might have been in the mid-first century AD, but a minority of mailshirts in the ranks is certainly acceptable. Mail was also worn by standard-bearers, musicians, and centurions, and of course by auxiliary troops.

Roman mail was generally made of iron, with rings as small as 1/8" in diameter, in the common "4 in 1" pattern.  Usually, half the rings were solid--either punched from sheet metal, or cut from wire and welded shut--while the rest were riveted shut.  The solid rings were roughly square in cross-section, i.e., the difference between the ring's inner and outer diameter was the same not much greater than the thickness.  The wire for the riveted rings could be round (usually) or square.  While it was long believed that some Roman mail rings may simply have been butted shut, closer analysis of surviving fragments has not revealed any definite proof of that.  There is evidence that the rings could be tinned or even gilded!

Roman rings with an inside diameter of c. 5 mm and an outside diameter of c. 7 mm were apparently very typical.  An outside diameter of 10 mm or 3/8" seems to have been about the maximum, but for our purposes an outside diameter of about 1/2" will be accepted.  Steel wire of about 16 gauge is typical for reproductions, though thinner is better particularly for smaller or riveted rings.   Several Legio XX members have mail with butted rings, but we are trying to move away from it.  Riveted mail is available from several suppliers, though it's possible for badly-done all-riveted mail to look worse than well-done alternating solid and butted rings. See the suggestions at Legion XX's corresponding page.

Lorica squamata: Armor of small metal scales sewn to a fabric backing was known to the Romans as lorica squamata.  It is typically seen on depictions of standard bearers, musicians, centurions, cavalry troops, and even auxiliary infantry, but could be worn by regular legionaries as well.  A shirt of scale armor was shaped in the same way as a lorica hamata, mid-thigh length with the shoulder doublings or cape.  It is possible that the shirt could be opened either at the back or down one side so that it was easier to put on, the opening being closed by ties.   Much has been written about scale armor's supposed vulnerability to an upward thrust, but this is probably greatly exaggerated. The individual scales ("squamae") were either iron or brass, or even alternating metals on the same shirt.  They could be tinned as well, one surviving fragment showing brass scales that were alternately tinned and plain brass. For more information, visit Legion XX's corresponding page.

Submaralis: We use the term Submaralis to refer to the garment worn under the armor to protect clothing and body from chafing and soiling.  There are several literary references to it, though at least one is ambiguous and may refer to a weapon.  A 4th century description, which uses the term thoracomachus, says it is made of thick cloth, covered with leather (or with a separate leather garment over it) for waterproofing.  However, there are no confirmed archeological remains or certain depictions. One important function of the Submaralis is to give the shoulders padding against the weight and abuse of the armor.  M.C. Bishop points out that shoulder pads also raise the collar plates of a lorica segmentata up to the narrower part of the neck, alleviating "neck pinch", and causes the breast plates to hang straight, not at an angle.   (Original breast plates always have their straps and hooks mounted vertically and horizontally, but do not show evidence of the angled stress suffered by modern reconstructions.) The exact form of your submaralis is up to you. More information and patterns can be found at Legio XX's corresponding page from their manual. 

Pilum: The javelin or pilum consists of a long iron head with a small point, and a wooden shaft.  On the most common type, the bottom of the head widens into a flat tang, which is riveted into the widened top of the wood shaft.  The second type has a socketed head, and a third type, less well-known, has a spike tang.  In the first century AD, some tanged pila are shown with a spherical weight, presumed to be lead, behind the joint block.  Apparently the weapon had become lighter over the centuries, and the weight was added to increase its "punch". Instructions and tips to make your own can be found on Legio XX's handbook section about pilum.

Gladius (sword): There were several types of infantry sword in use in the mid-first century AD.  The older "Mainz" pattern (far left with plain and fancy scabbards) had a blade 20" to 22" long by about 2-1/2" to 3" wide.  It was slightly wasp-waisted, with a long point.  A variation called the Fulham pattern (second from left) also had a long point, but was only 2" wide with straight edges that flared slightly at the hilt.  The newer "Pompeii" type (right and second from right) had parallel edges and a short point, and was c. 2" wide by 18" to 22" long. Blades were double-edged with a flat diamond or lens cross-section, without grooves or fullers.  Some had low-carbon steel cores with high-carbon edges, some had high-carbon exteriors with lower carbon interiors, and some were low-carbon throughout.  The tang is an extension of the blade which projects though the hilt.  The tip is peened flat over a washer or small stud. For tips on purchasing or modifying your gladius, see Legio XX's corresponding page.

Pugio (dagger): Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger was undergoing some changes in the 1st century AD.  Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 7" to 10" long and 2" or more in width.  A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face, or defined by grooves on either side.  The tang was wide and flat initially, and the grip was riveted through it, as well as through the shoulders of the blade.

About 50 AD a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the shoulders of the blade.  This in itself caused no great change in the pugio's appearance, but some of these later blades were narrower (under 1-3/4" wide), and/or had little or no waisting, and/or had reduced or vestigial midribs.

Throughout the period the outline of the hilt remained basically the same.  It was made with 2 layers of horn or wood sandwiching the tang, each overlaid with a thin metal plate.  The hilt plates were almost always iron, often thin sheet but sometimes solid--see cross sections at far right.  There is apparently no evidence that the hilt plates were ever cast out of brass or bronze, as on many reproductions.  Occasionally the hilt was decorated with engraving or inlay.  Note that the hilt is 3-1/2" to under 5" long overall and that the grip is quite narrow--it will always seem to be too small, and even the solid iron ones will not be very heavy.

Hairstyles: The second century was a time of change with regards to facial hair in the Roman Army. The well-known visage of the clean-shaven legionary gave way to bearded faces. This was a direct result of Emperor Hadrian himself “breaking the mold”, as it were, and becoming the first emperor to wear a full beard (some earlier emperors had worn a light beard visible in their coin portraits, usually in times of mourning). This was due to Hadrian's strong admiration for the ancient Greeks, and his desire to strengthen the Greco-Roman cultural tie (although one ancient biographer asserts he wore the beard to cover up pockmarks on his skin).

Consequently, either clean-shaven legionaries or bearded ones are authorized, as well as anywhere in between (the unshaven look), provided it looks natural. Goatees are seen as a relatively modern style, and are not recommended. Mustaches alone were not Roman, although they were by the Celts. Since our legion is occupying a Celtic country, it is conceivable a legionary might "go native" and adopt the local style of wearing mustaches alone, so we do not rule them out entirely; however, we prefer the options outlined above.

Hair length should generally be kept above the shoulder or shorter. There is no evidence of legionaries with long, flowing locks (however dashing it may look to the modern eye). If a member chooses to wear his/her hair longer, then it must be kept out of sight as much as possible. A pony-tail, smartly-tied and tucked down into the tunic/armor works best in photos. Unnatural colors are forbidden.

Jewelry should be kept to what was evident in the Roman world. Finger rings, wrist rings, and necklaces, in bone, brass, copper, or bronze, in any of the many styles evident at that time, are authorized. The Celtic world provided many intricate patterns of jewelry that were copied by the Romans, and some Celtic and/or Germanic motifs were creeping into soldierly accoutrements by the mid-second century A.D., particularly in items such as cloak brooches and belt plates. Earrings (for men) or other types of piercings (nose, cheek or eyebrow studs, etc.) are not allowed to be worn at events unless evidence for them can be established and proven to the Optio's satisfaction. As tattoos were worn by many Celts, we do not rule out their use with Legio XIIII; however, any visible tattoos should have an appropriately period look, or else should be covered up in some way.

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Advanced (Second Year and Beyond)
Once your full kit is together, you can work on your Advanced Kit - adding things like:

cloak/wool blanket roll
marching pack
canteen
purse/satchel
rations, etc. 

All the little things that a Roman soldier would have had as personal items.

CLOAK (Sagum or Paenula): All legionaries carried a cloak that served as a source of warmth, protection from the elements, and as a bedroll. Two patterns were known to have been used, the sagum and the paenula, the latter differing from the former only by the addition of a hood. There is some evidence that the hoodless sagum was somewhat more common in the second century, but either pattern is certainly fine for use with Legio XIIII GMV. The color for regular miletes (enlisted men) should be an earthy shade of brown, from yellow-brown to rust. Officers are authorized to wear red or white cloaks. Directions for making this item can be found at: http://www.larp.com/legioxx/cloak.html There are a variety of cloak colors that we prefer.
Most are in the brown family.Some have a medium tan. Others have darker brown. So a range of color would be fine.

As long as it is wool, I don't think anyone will get too excited about what type of wool. Merino was available at the time and alpacas were not really around the area or import much. Our wool for the cloaks is a thicker and somewhat coarse weave--basically the same as the tunic, but a bit thicker. The merino or cashmere are too fine and smooth for the army in the field. A nice, soft wool would work forcivilians, though, but perhaps not as smooth as cashmere.


BREECHES (Braccae or Feminalia): In the first century AD, Roman auxiliary soldiers took to wearing tight-fitting knee-length breeches called either braccae or feminalia (the terms seem interchangeable, although some modern scholars think feminalia refers to knee-length breeches, while braccae refers to full-length trousers). Their use started with the auxiliary cavalry (understandably, since riding a horse for hours on end can hurt one’s bare thighs!) and spread to the infantry, until, by the time Trajan's Column was erected, they were ubiquitous among all types of auxiliaries, or non-citizen soldiers. Legionaries eventually adopted the fashion as well, despite the longtime Roman bias against any kind of trousers as being fit only for hairy barbarians or effeminate Orientals.

What were they made of?  We're not sure, although leather seems likely for breeches worn by cavalrymen. The snugness of fit seen on auxiliary infantry on Trajan's Column and other monuments suggests either leather or a stretchy woolen weave. As for color, we have a pretty good clue: The Historia Augusta, a collection of Imperial biographies composed in the fourth century A.D., records that the Emperor Severus Alexander wore "white breeches instead of the normal red ones." From this we can deduce that red was the normal color, although whether this applied for all soldiers or just officers and/or emperors is an open question.

SOCKS (Udones):  While there is evidence supporting the use of socks by the Romans, it is of a very particular type of sock. And one, frankly, that modern reenactors almost never get right! The Roman sock typically was stitched together from a pattern, not knitted as modern socks are. Often it had no toe or heel section, and only a half inch of material at most was visible above the boot top. Socks would, of course, be cumbersome to troops on the march, who wore footwear that facilitated easy draining of water and fast drying properties. The sock would negate these valuable abilities. Consequently, they are generally not worn by our legion.

Purse/Satchel (loculus): This is a leather satchel that fits on the back pole of the furca (marching pack). It may also be carried by a shoulder strap for carrying food, and other Roman necessities. The marching pack contained much of the soldiers tools and accoutrements. Legion XX's handbook has a good tutorial about the loculus and basics on how to make one. This site teaches you how to make your own satchel.

Civilians
Much of Roman clothing was designed to reveal the social status of its wearer, particularly for freeborn men. In typical Roman fashion, the more distinguished the wearer, the more his dress was distinctively marked, while the dress of the lowest classes was often not marked at all.

Sources: Scenes noted from Trajan’s Column are as presented in Yann LeBohec’s The Imperial Roman Army (L’Armee Romaine, sous le Haut-Empire, c.1989 Picard Editeur). Other resources include Graham Sumner’s Roman Military Clothing 100 BC - AD 200 (2002, Osprey Publishing), Windrow and McBride’s Imperial Rome At War (1996, Concord Publications), Graham Sumner’s Roman Army - Wars of the Empire (1997, Brassey’s UK Ltd.), and Peter Connolly’s Legionary (1988, Oxford Publ.).
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Men

Basic men's clothing is very simple, consisting of the tunic(s) and footwear, usually with a cloak or wrap of some sort for respectable wear.

Tunica (Latin for tunic) : Roman dress differed from one class to another. The tunic was worn by plebeians (common people), herdsmen and slaves was made from a coarse dark material. The tunic worn by patricians was made from white wool or linen. Magistrates wore the tunic augusticlavia, and senators wore a tunic with broad strips, tunica laticlavia. Military tunics were shorter than those worn by civilians. The civilian tunic is identical to the military one, but can be any reasonable color. The most common style seems to have been sleeveless with a slit neck opening.  Senators wore a white tunic with 2 broad (3" wide) vertical purple stripes (clavi), running from shoulder (at the end of the neck slit) to hem, front and back.  Equestrians were permitted to wear narrow (1") purple clavi.  These stripes are also seen on tunics of common people or even slaves, in colors other than purple on white.  The tunic is worn with a narrow cloth or leather belt so that it just covers the knee.  Remember not to skimp on the fabric--make it big and baggy.

To make a tunica: Roll out the material on a table. To determine the total yardage needed, have each student measure from shoulder to mid-calf. Double that measurement and add three inches because you will need to calculate for the front and back of the costume. Cut the length of material needed. Take that lengthwise piece and cut it in half from selvage to selvage. The selvage is the finished edge of the fabric. Place the two pieces of cloth for each tunic with wrong sides together. Calculate the amount of the arm hole opening by measuring from shoulder to mid-calf. Pin the two pieces of cloth together from the bottom up leaving the shoulder to rib measurement unpinned toward the top. That will create the arm hole opening. Do both sides of the tunic the same way. Measure the circumference of the student's head. Add three inches to the measurement. Then pin the shoulders of the tunic, leaving an opening in the middle the same circumference as this measurement. This will be the tunic's neck opening. Using a back stitch, begin from the bottom and sew to the arm hole on each side. Do the same at the shoulders. At the bottom, do a hem of approximately three inches using a simple whip stitch or slip stitch. At the neck, turn the edge under 1/4" twice and use a whip stitch or slip stitch to finish.

Cloaks include the paenula, laena, lacerna, sagum, and the Greek chlamys.  The latter two are rectangular, and the paenula is semicircular or oval (see the Handbook page on Cloaks), but it is impossible to say how the various types differed from one another.  The lacerna seems to have been semi-circular and pinned at the right shoulder, and laena often referred to a circular or semi-circular cloak worn by a priest, and clasped in back.  But references are confusing and contradictory, and terms might have been somewhat interchangeable.  (Do you wear a coat or a jacket with your shirt and tie?)  The cucullus is hooded and made like the paenula, but reached only to the chest or waist.  It was popular with lower-class workers and slaves.  There is also the pallium, the male version of the woman's palla; it was large and rectangular and could be colored, and was worn like a toga.

Toga: The toga is a formal garment worn only by citizens.  The toga is normally fine white wool, and will have to be made of several pieces, all sewn together by hand.  (Selvedge edges can be overlapped and sewn with a blanket stitch or 2 rows of running stitch.)  The toga praetexta has a purple border (c.3") along the curved edge, and is worn by magistrates in public office, and also by citizen boys and girls under the age of adulthood.  Apparently the toga was also seen on prostitutes and adulteresses.  The toga palla is made of dark wool and is worn for mourning.   The toga should be worn with an unbelted white or off-white tunic, with clavi if appropriate, and closed shoes--open sandals were considered improper with a toga.

In the Republic, the toga was roughly semi-circular, c. 12 feet long by 6 feet wide, but by the Empire it had become even larger.  Its exact shape is not known, but it may have been a sort of  ellipse roughly 10 feet wide and 15 feet long or more (see below).  It is folded lengthwise into the traditional semi-circular shape before putting it on.  With the straight or folded edge upwards, it is held across the wearer's back, and one end is draped over the left shoulder so that it hangs down in front to about mid-shin.  The rest of the toga is passed under the right arm and back up over the left shoulder, and the pleats and folds neatly arranged.  The Imperial toga can be partly unfolded under the right arm, and at the front part of it can be pulled out from underneath to form a pocket called the "sinus".  Generally the left hand must be held in place as shown, even gripping the diagonal edge of the toga, or it will  fall off the shoulder.  The right hand is free to gesture.

Footwear: Men wore sandals. Patricians wore red sandals with an ornament at the back. Senators wore brown footwear with black straps which wound round the leg to mid-calf, where the straps were tied. Consuls wore white shoes, and soldiers, heavy boots.

Rings were the only jewelry worn by Roman citizen men, and good manners dictated only one ring. Of course, some men did not follow "good taste", and wore as many as sixteen rings.

Hairstyles and beards varied with the times. In early Roman times, men wore long hair and full beards. For a while, they were clean-shaven with short hair. About first century A.D., they started to style their hair and wear beards again. It was not uncommon for men to wear wigs as a disguise and to hide baldness.

Underclothing: The SUBLIGACULUM is a loincloth worn as underwear.  It can be a simple breechclout, a strip of cloth c. 6" to 12" wide passing under the crotch and hung over a belt at front and back, or it could be a rectangle with ties at the corners.  The latter style may also be called a perizoma.  Gladiators are seen wearing something like trunks or shorts with an apron-like effect at the front.  How common any form of underwear might have been is unknown. Old men in poor health wound strips of woolen cloth like spiral puttees around their legs for warmth, or wore wraps or mufflers, but such things were considered marks of old age or weakness, not to be used by healthy men. We understand if reenactors would rather go with something a bit less, um, diaper-like. If modern underwear is worn, we recommend it be the type known as "briefs" as opposed to "boxers." Invariably a gust of wind will bellow out the tunic momentarily, and boxers will be clearly visible, whereas briefs will not. Trust us on this one.

MARCHING GEAR: Loculus (Satchel), Furca (Carry Pole), Canteen.  A digging tool such as: Pala (shovel), Lamina Caespiti (turf cutter), Dolabrum (Pickaxe), Basket.

EATING UTENSILS:  Vas (Cooking Pot copper or iron), Patera (Mess Pot), Cup, Spoon, fire starter (flint tool), canteen

PERSONAL ITEMS: Sponge, small hygiene tools (fingernail scraper, ear spoon, tweezers...), Comb, Razor, knucklebones,
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Women

Colors:
Go for a solid block color. Avoid patterns and metallic threads or multi-colored. This is not to say they didn't have them, but generally it's a good idea to research before wearing something like that. If buying wool for a cloak, again go for a solid block color and avoid plaids as you're Roman, not Celt. The under tunica I make out of white or cream, with the over tunica in a darker color.

Avoid purples - the very popular modern blue-purple didn't really exist and red-purple was used by the imperial family and has various sumptuary laws attached to it through the centuries up to Byzantine times, so it's best to avoid it. Until about renaissance times, black was a fugitive color that changed quickly to dark brown, so while it looks stylish sadly it isn't really period. It wasn't known how to dye leather black, so if you buy shoes, get brown/tan/natural ones and avoid any black leather goods.

If you look good in bright jewel-like colors, go for gem colors - scarlets are great, sapphires, emeralds, dark blues and greens, goldy browns. Bright yellow was made from saffron so it is period, and if you're one of those lucky people who look good in yellow. Bright orange is not period, only being created as a permanent dye in the last hundred years or so. If you prefer more muted shades, nature colors are good - moss, tans, olives, browns, etc (plus they look great with bronze jewelry). White and pale creams are good colors also.

The majority of dyes were from animal and plant stuffs, with some few mineral dyes. There are various modern dyes that produce non-period colors, but if you stick to the above and avoid fluorescents you should be fine. To be honest, only clothing and illumination (painting) re-enactor nuts (aka 'mavins') are going to be able to tell the difference anyway and if they do comment, depending on how smart they are, either thank them and con them into helping you choose your next outfit, or tell them to get a life and learn some manners. ;-D Fabrics and dyes are actually a really interesting subject if you can find someone in your group who knows about them.

As a massive generalization (please take it as such!), the richer you were, the deeper, brighter and richer colors you wore (bleached whites and creams count as such), as it showed you could afford material dyed with the first batch of dye in the vat. Subsequent batches in the dyeing vats would return more muted, pastel shades. If you prefer wearing those colors, go for it anyway!

Fabric: Ask the members of your group where the best market stalls are to buy such - they'll have scoped them out. In terms of fabric, go for 100% natural fabrics - linen, silk and wools. Rayon is also good - it might not be period but it's a manmade 'natural' fabric also. These all 'breathe' and  will drape correctly and have the added bonus of being better at keeping you warm or cool than synthetics - often a very important thing at re-enactor events! Cotton wasn't period but can also be used, though I'd stick to the first three myself. I do have a cotton tunica myself, which is the one I use for scutwork around the kitchen (cheap, and I don't feel guilty about staining it!). The very nubbly raw silk wouldn't have been considered good quality (despite our modern tastes), and that lovely dual colored silk was non-existent. Felted wool is fine. Cotton/silk velvet was non-existent until centuries later as a fabric (and crushed velvet is a modern invention never seen in medieval times despite what the movies show you!). There are various weaving styles that are period but a) it's not my specialty b) that's getting waaaaay too obsessive! and c) see my comment regarding fabric & illumination mavens above.

Tunica: The tunica was the basic women's garment, made from two panels of linen or fine wool at least 30 to 40 inches wide and reaching to the ankles when belted.  In its traditional form it is sleeveless, and the top edges are not sewn together but rather fastened every few inches by little knots of fabric or possibly small buttons of some sort (leading to the modern term "gap-sleeved" tunic).  The fabric is gathered in at these points, and apparently normal brooches or fibulae were not used as fasteners.  The knots sometimes look like they are held by thread wrapped around the base, and in other depictions seem to be more disc-shaped.  If they are buttons, they are not used with buttonholes since the front and back panels of the tunic touch at the fastenings but do not overlap.  From three to five fastening points on each side seems to be common, with as many as seven.  Nearly any appropriate color may be used, and there may be a wide band of a different color at the hem.

There was also a much simpler form of tunica, very similar to a man's tunica, being sewn up the sides and along the top, and having short sleeves (six to eight inches long).  It can be worn belted or unbelted.  This was most often seen on lower-class or merchant-class women, freedwomen, slaves, and young girls.  Like the gap-sleeved tunica it may be any reasonable color, and may have a contrasting band at the hem.  Alternatively, it may have clavi, a pair of narrow vertical stripes front and back which reach from the top to the hem.  The clavi are about an inch or so wide, and can be from 10 to 20 inches apart (typically equidistant from each other and the sides of the tunica, but not always).  They were probably woven into the fabric originally (and most likely ran across the grain of the fabric since the selvedge edges were used to form the top edge and hem), but may be sewn on for our purposes. An undertunic, probably sleeveless, can be worn with the short-sleeved tunica, but not with the gap-sleeved tunica.  It can be seen at the neck, and would presumably be white linen.

Basically, get a length as tall as you are - top of head to toes - and then double it.  You're basically creating a 'fold-over' so the extra length given by your head gives you allowance for body shape and the folds over your belt, also allowance for hemming. Once you've made one tunica you'll be able to fine-tune it to your specifications. I generally buy 5 yards wide material, especially if it's a light-weight, but if you're slender you should be able to get away with 4 yards wide. The number of folds and drape of the material vary with each width and weight so again, I'm afraid that experience will tell you if you look good in it or not! If you want a little decoration, ribbon with the Greek key pattern on it is pretty and can be used along the top edge of the tunic.This link will take you to a great pattern discussion and assistance.

If it is cold, I suggest you make your under tunica with closed arms along the top.  Do you remember those cloaks that were fashionable about five years back - basically a rectangle of material with a split halfway across the width up to the midway point? (see below for really really basic pattern) That's the perfect type of cloak for events in the colder weather. (It's also known as a Charlemagne cloak) and if you make it from a felted wool, absolutely no sewing is necessary! Again, 150cm wide fabric, twice times from your shoulder height to wherever you want it to stop. You'll get a good idea from the garb of the other Roman ladies at the events or some of the vendors. A good excuse to go shopping, ladies!

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Stola (Over tunica): The STOLA is the traditional distinctive garment of a married Roman woman or matron, worn over a gap-sleeved tunica.  At the top, the fabric is gathered into a pair of straps or narrow bands which go over the shoulders, causing the neck opening to form a V-shape--it appears that the neck opening is simply a vertical slit, rather than horizontal.  This is just one theory out of several, however!   The stola was properly long enough to cover the feet, and it is worn with a belt high under the bust.  By the first century A.D., the stola is apparently falling out of everyday use, though it probably was still worn on formal or ceremonial occasions.

The over tunica I make out of a slightly heavier weight material than the under tunica. For the under tunica in the summer, butterfly silk is excellent, but for a winter under tunica I'd go for a medium weight silk or Irish linen if you can get it at a reasonable price. Silk/linen blends are excellent and keep you warm. Sadly it's almost impossible to find very light weight wool at a non-astronomical price, but medium-weight wool will make an excellent winter over tunica and I've found are often dyed in perfect period colors. Here is a great link to how to make your own.

Palla: A shawl, called a palla, was worn wrapped around the shoulders and arm, or could be draped over the head. A medium weight fabric makes the best Palla - you don't want it to be too light as it'll annoy you with blowing around all the time. Mine is an opaque silk chiffon I found it in the 'Roll Ends' bin for an excellent price and which is ideal. Basically the length should be from the top of your head to about your knees, twice. The width can be about 4 yards . The palla gets the most wear and tear of your outfit, as it gets used as head veil, shawl and ornamental wrap, so buy something you can throw in the wash which doesn't crush easily and preferably doesn't need ironing all the time. For this one it's worth spending a little extra money if you have to, especially as this is the piece of clothing that really 'makes' the outfit. The palla is a large rectangular wrap, at least 5' by 9'.  It is roughly the female equivalent to a man's toga, but was always worn by a decent woman in public, and could be put on in a number of ways.   Various wraps or cloaks were also worn, but like the palla these were draped or wrapped but not pinned. 

Footwear: Women's street shoes were made of leather, like a man's. In the house, most Romans (men and women) wore sandals. Women's sandals were brightly colored. Some were even decorated with pearls. Women wore closed shoes that were either white, green or yellow. In colder weather, wool tights or tight leggings will keep you warm and not show under the tunica. I'd also go for boots in colder weather too - as flat and as plain as possible and brown if you have them!

Jewelry: The ancient Roman women loved ornate necklaces, pins, earrings, bracelets and friendship rings. Pearls were favorites. Most early Roman jewelry resembled Greek and Etruscan jewelry, but Roman styles eventually developed. The Romans were fond of colored stones such as amber, lapis lazuli (for the wealthy or very loved), topaz, emeralds, rubies and sapphires. Pendants, especially cameos in gold frames, were popular. Most women got their ears pierced. Getting your ears pieced was popular in Rome.

Underclothing: The STROPHIUM is the Roman brassiere.  It is a band of soft linen 6" to 8" wide (or a folded wider strip), long enough to go around the body a number of times (six or seven for best results).  It can be worn in several ways, for example placing the center of the band at the back and crossing the ends in front to support the breasts, then wrapping the ends around and tucking them in at the back again.  Evidence is scarce, however, and pins or ties may have been used.

While the undertunic served as an undergarment, there are also references to the supparum, subucula, and (for matrons) indusium, which may all be slip-like garments, hanging from the waist.   Dancing or exercising girls are shown wearing "bikini briefs", and a pair of woman's panties made of leather have been found; it is believed that these may have been fairly common for wearing while exercising or playing sports at the baths, but not actually worn under clothing.

Hairstyles: Women often dyed their hair, usually golden-red to blonde. They used false hairpieces to make their hair thicker or longer. While upper-class women favored elaborate arrangements of curls and tiers, simpler hairdos involved coiled braids or a bun at the back. Sometimes, Roman women wore their hair up, in carefully arranged styles, held with jeweled hairpins. Sometimes they wore it down, curled in ringlets. Fashionable women wore hair-pieces that were often made from the hair of slave girls. Check out these photos from the 'Rome' series or borrow that series and take a look. If you have short hair, another common hair style was a strip of material tied at the nape with trailing ends, which would hide that. Traditionally, girls and women tied their hair back with thin woolen bands called vittae, which were considered spiritual protection.  Mature Roman women would always cover their heads with a veil or part of the palla when out in public.

http://www.moviecentral.ca/content3/rome/cast.htm
http://www.tv.com/photos/viewer.html?type=21&ref_id=23351&ref_type_id=101&expand=1&picnum=19
http://www.hboasia.com/rome/cast/actor/indira_varma.html
http://www.linternaute.com/television/dossier/06/rome/diaporama/niobe-varma.shtml
http://www.dl.ket.org/latin1/things/romanlife/

Accessorizing: Parasols were used, or women might carry fans made of peacock feathers, wood or stretched linen. Hats were not worn except by slaves but women were expected to cover their heads when walking outdoors. Cloaks were worn to keep warm. Women enjoyed gazing at themselves in mirrors of highly polished metal (not glass).

Cosmetics: After applying a cold cream, chalk powder or orrisroot for foundation, red ochre for cheeks and lips, charcoal (kohl) made with lamp-black or galena for eyeliner and brows, and saffron for eye shadow were used as cosmetics. The Roman Makeover site is a great place to visit for some hair and make-up and spa pampering tips!

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Children

Children in Ancient Rome wore a simple tunic made of linen or wool that reached down to their knees.

A boys tunic would be white (more off white than pure white, since a bleached white was more expensive) with a crimson edge running all around it. When a Roman boy became a man at 16 or 17 years of age he was entitled to wear a plain white tunic or toga like all the other Ancient Roman Citizens. The year was selected by choosing the date which came closest to March 17th. Coming of age, becoming a citizen, was quite a celebration. On a boy's sixteenth or seventeenth birthday, the boy dressed himself in a white tunic, which his father adjusted. The day ended with a dinner party, given by the father, in honor of the new Roman citizen. Boys sometimes wore small gold rings carved with a phallus for good luck.

Girls in Ancient Rome would have worn a simple tunic belted at the waist. An over tunic (stola) that reached down to the ground would be worn when the girl appeared in public.

Bulla: A bulla was a neckchain and round pouch containing protective amulets (for the boys, usually phallic symbols), and the bulla of an upper-class boy or girl would be made of gold. Girls wore their bulla until the eve of their wedding day, when their bulla was set aside with other childhood things, like her toys. Boys wore their bulla until they day they became a citizen. When the boy reached age sixteen or seventeen the boys' bullas were put aside and carefully saved. A boy's bulla could be wore by the owner again, if he won special honors. For example, if he became a successful general, and won the honor of triumph, he would wear his bulla in ceremonial parades, to protect him from the evil jealously of men or gods.

By the time a girls was about fourteen years old, their fathers planned a marriage for them. When they married the man chosen by their father, the girls left their house to live with their new husband and his family. The bride would take her childhood toys and clothing and offer them to either the goddess Venus or to household gods called lares and penates. A pig would be sacrificed on the day of the wedding, and prayers would be made to Juno. The father of the bride would sign the marriage contract and gifts from the bride's family would be given to the groom's family. The wedding day would end with the groom pretending to take the bride away from her mother as a remembrance of the legendary story of the Sabian women in early Rome. Boys were not allowed to marry until they were at least fifteen years old. By then, they were also allowed to vote and get a job.

Knowing Our History
Every legion member should know a basic outline of the unit history - where we were stationed, conflicts, where the "GMV" comes from and what it stands for, etc. See our history page, and our suggested reading resources on the links page.

(Steven Dando-Collins' Nero's Killing Machine doesn't count, in my opinion, because of his numerous mistakes in his book on the Tenth Legion.  We know many people have read him, but we prefer the original primary sources - Caesar, Tacitus, etc.  Dando-Collins has no footnotes or references, and may be an entry point, and sources like the movie Gladiator, should be taken with a grain of salt.)

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New Members
On an additional note - if you have a friend who wants to come to an event and dress the part, we can probably find a spare tunic and caligae to loan.  We want to encourage all who are interested to check out our great hobby and group.

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